The Virtual Physics Handbook (GCSE)
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Energy
Energy Stores and Systems
Basic Calculated Energy Changes
Changes in Energy
Elastic Potential Energy Calculations
Gravitational Potential Energy Calculations
Energy Changes in Systems
Calculating Energy Stored or Released when Temperature Changes
Specific Heat Capacity Definition
Practical Finding Specific Heat Capacity of a Material
Power
Energy Transfer in a System
The Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy Transfer with No Net Energy Change
Examples of Energy Dissipation and Wasted Energy
How Building Design Affects Rate of Cooling
Required Practical 2 - Investigating Efficiency of Different Materials as Thermal Insulators
Efficiency
Increasing Efficiency of Intended Energy Transfer
National and Global Energy Resources
Main Energy Resources and Their Functions
Examples of How Energy Resources Are Used in Everyday Life
Comparing Different Energy Resources and Their Uses
Reliability of Energy Resources
Environmental Impact of Different Energy Resources
Patterns of Energy Resources and Their Consequences
Environmental Issues from the Use of Different Energy Resources
Identifying and Addressing Environmental Issues from Energy Resources
Electricity
Standard Circuit Diagram Symbols
Explaining Additional Components in Electrical Circuits
Electrical Charge and Current
Requirements for Electrical Charge Flow
Applying the Equation for Current Flow
Units for Current, Charge, and Time
Current is the Same at Any Point in a Single Closed Loop
Current, Resistance, and Potential Difference
Relation between Current, Resistance, and Potential Difference
Understanding the Difference between Voltage and Potential Difference
Required Practical 3 - Investigating Factors Affecting the Resistance of Electrical Circuits
Resistors
Required Practical 4: Investigating Current and Potential Difference Across Components
Relationship of a Thermistor's Resistance with Temperature
Examples of Using a Thermistor in a Circuit
Relationship between Light Intensity and LDR Resistance
Examples of Using an LDR in Circuits
Designing Circuits to Measure Resistance of a Component Using Ammeters and Voltmeters
Understanding Component Properties from Graphs
Series and Parallel Circuits
Series and Parallel Connections of Components in Circuits
Properties of Parallel Circuits
Constructing and Checking Series and Parallel Circuits with Common Components
Series vs. Parallel Circuits - Understanding the Differences
Qualitative Explanation of Series and Parallel Resistance
Layout of DC Series Circuits for Measuring and Testing Using Current and Voltage
Calculating Current, Potential Difference (Voltage), and Resistance in DC Circuits
Solving Problems for Circuits with Resistors in Series using Equivalent Resistance
Calculating Resistance in Parallel
Direct and Alternating Potential Difference
Mains Electricity
Layout of the UK Three-Core Cable Plug
Danger of Live Wire with an Open Switch in the Mains Circuit
Power
Power Transfer and its Relation to Potential Difference (p.d.) and Current in a Circuit Device
Energy Transfers in Everyday Appliances
Everyday Devices and Energy Transfers
Appliance Usage Time and Power Consumption
Energy Transfer in Domestic Appliances
Work Done When Charge Flows in a Circuit
Applying Electrical Work Equations E=Pt and E=QV
Power, Potential Difference, and Current in Circuit Devices
Power and Energy Transfer in Circuit Devices
Power Ratings and Stored Energy in Domestic Electrical Appliances
The National Grid
The National Grid - Power Stations to Consumers
The Journey of Electricity from the National Grid to Consumers
Step-up and Step-down Transformers in Electrical Power Transmission
Efficiency of the National Grid System in Energy Transfer
Static Charge
Understanding Electric Charging through Friction
Understanding Electron Transfer through Friction
Understanding Electron Transfer and Charge Polarisation
Effects of Bringing Charged Objects Close Together
Production of Static Electricity and Sparking by Rubbing Surfaces
Evidence of Forces of Attraction or Repulsion between Charged Objects
Understanding Static Electricity through Electron Transfer
Electric Fields
Understanding Electric Fields Created by Charged Objects
Understanding Electric Field Strength and Distance from Charged Objects
Electric Field Interaction and Force on a Second Charge
Electrical Field Pattern of an Isolated Charged Sphere
Understanding the Concept of an Electric Field
Understanding Electric Fields and Their Role in Electrostatic Phenomena
Particle Model of Matter
Density of Materials
Explaining Different States of Matter using the Particle Model
Explaining Differences in Density using the Particle Model
Drawing and Recognizing Simple Diagrams to Model Solids, Liquids, and Gases
Explaining Differences in Density between States of Matter based on Particle Arrangement
Required Practical 5: Finding Density of Regular and Irregular Shapes
Changes of State
Describing State Changes and Conservation of Mass
Changes of State: Physical vs. Chemical Changes
Internal Energy
Understanding Internal Energy in a System
Understanding Internal Energy as Total Kinetic and Potential Energy
Heating and Changes in Energy within a System
Temperature Changes in a System and Specific Heat Capacity
Temperature Increase of a System and its Dependencies
Applying the Specific Heat Capacity Equation
Defining Specific Heat Capacity
Changes of State and Specific Latent Heat
Understanding Latent Heat in Changes of State
Energy Changes in Changes of State
Understanding Specific Latent Heat
Applying the Equation for Specific Latent Heat
Understanding Specific Latent Heat of Fusion
Understanding Specific Latent Heat of Vaporisation
Interpreting Heating and Cooling Graphs with Changes of State
Distinguishing Between Specific Heat Capacity and Latent Heat
Particle Motion in Gases
The Constant Random Motion of Gas Molecules
The Relationship Between Gas Temperature and Average Kinetic Energy of Molecules
The Relationship Between Gas Temperature and Pressure at Constant Volume
The Relationship Between Molecular Motion, Temperature, and Pressure in a Gas
Qualitative Relation Between Gas Temperature and Pressure at Constant Volume
Pressure in Gases
Gas Compression and Expansion by Pressure Changes
The Pressure of a Gas and Its Net Force on Container Walls
Using the Particle Model to Explain Gas Pressure and Volume at Constant
Applying the Pressure-Volume Equation (pV = constant) for a Fixed Mass of Gas
Calculating the Change in Pressure of a Gas Volume
Increasing the Pressure of a Gas
Recall that Work is the Transfer of Energy by a Force on a Gas
The Effect of Doing Work on a Gas: Increasing Internal Energy and Temperature
Atomic Structure
The Structure of an Atom
The Basic Structure of an Atom
Recall Rough Scale Comparisons for the Size of an Atom and Its Nucleus
Recall that Most of the Mass of an Atom is Concentrated in the Nucleus
Recall that Electrons are Arranged at Different Distances from the Nucleus
Differences in Energy Levels and Electron Distances
Mass Number, Atomic Number and Isotopes
The Development of the Model of the Atom
The Dynamic Nature of Physics: New Evidence Leading to Changed Models
The Atomic Model before the Discovery of the Electron
The Discovery of the Electron and the Plum Pudding Model of the Atom
The Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment and the Discovery of the Nucleus
Niels Bohr's Model: Electrons Orbiting the Nucleus at Specific Distances
The Subdivision of Nucleus Positive Charge: Discovery of Protons
Discovery of Neutrons by James Chadwick
Scattering Experiments and the Changing Atomic Model
Difference between the Plum Pudding Model and the Nuclear Model of the Atom
Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Radiation
Radioactive Decay: The Random Process of Nuclei Becoming More Stable
Unit of Activity: The Becquerel (Bq)
Applying Decay Properties in Uses of Radiation
Nuclear Equations
Recognising Qualities in Radioactive Decay Equations
Predicting Types of Emission from Decay Equations
Balancing Radioactive Decay Equations
The Emission of Gamma Rays and Conservation of Mass and Charge
Half-Lives and the Random Nature of Radioactive Decay
The Half-Life of Radioactive Isotopes
Half-Life and Its Relation to the Random Nature of Radioactive Decay
Determining the Half-Life of a Radioactive Isotope
Calculating Net Decline Ratio in Radioactive Emission
Radioactive Contamination
Comparing Hazards of Contamination and Irradiation
Precautions for Protection against Radiation Hazards in Irradiation
Importance of Publishing Radiation Studies for Peer Review
Hazards and Uses of Radioactive Emissions and of Background Radiation
Background Radiation and Its Variability
Radiation Dose and the Sievert (Sv) Unit
Different Half-Lives of Radioactive Isotopes
Wide Range of Half-Life Values in Radioactive Isotopes
Hazards of Radioactive Material and Half-Life
Uses of Nuclear Radiation
Medical Uses of Nuclear Radiation
Uses of Nuclear Radiation in Exploration of Internal Organs and Tissue Control or Destruction
Perceived Risk of Using Nuclear Radiation: Data and Consequences
Nuclear Fission
Spontaneous Fission and Neutron Absorption
Kinetic Energy of Fission Products
Chain Reaction in Nuclear Fission
Controlling Fission Reactors with Control Rods
Diagrams of Nuclear Fission and Chain Reaction
Nuclear Fusion
Forces
Scalars and Vector Qualities
Identifying Scalar and Vector Quantities
Measurements for Scalars and Vectors
Contact and Non-Contact Forces
Distinguishing Between Contact and Non-Contact Forces
Interaction and Force Between Pairs of Objects
Gravity
Weight as a Force Due to Gravity
Distinguishing Between Mass and Weight
Calculating Weight using W = mg
Weight is Directly Proportional to Mass
Measuring Weight Using a Newton Meter
Resultant Forces
Drawing Resultant Force Diagrams
Calculating the Resultant of Two Forces in a Straight Line
Forces Acting on an Isolated Object or System
Resultant Force and Free Body Diagrams
Resolving a Force into Components
Vector Diagrams and Resultant Force
Work Done and Energy Transfer
Converting Between Newton Meters and Joules
Work Done Against Friction and Rise in Temperature
Forces and Elasticity
Forces Involved in Stretching, Bending, and Compressing an Object
Difference Between Elastic and Inelastic Deformation
Hooke's Law and Its Application
Work Done in Stretching and Compression
Linear and Nonlinear Relationships between Force and Extension
Calculating Spring Constant from Hooke's Law
Interpreting Data from an Investigation of the Relationship between Force and Extension
Finding Work Done and Elastic Potential Energy
Required Practical 6: Investigate the Relationship of a Spring with Different Masses Attached
Moments, Levers and Gears
Identify the Effect of a System of Forces on Object Rotation
Examples of Forces Leading to Rotation
Definition of a Moment (or Torque)
Equation for a Moment (or Torque)
Calculating Forces in Balanced Objects
Levers and Gears in Applying Rotational Effects of Forces
Explaining How Levers and Gears Transmit Rotational Effects of Forces
Pressure in Fluid 1
Calculating Pressure at a Surface
Pressure in Fluid 2
Calculating the Pressure Due to a Column of Liquid
Explaining Why Pressure Increases as Depth Increases
Explaining Why Pressure Increases with Density of Fluid
Calculating Pressure at Different Depths of a Liquid
Calculating Change of Pressure
Factors Influencing Floating and Sinking
Atmospheric Pressure
Earth's Atmosphere and Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure Variation with Height
Distance and Displacement
Express Displacement in Terms of Magnitude and Direction
Speed
Variation in Speed of Human Movement
Factors Affecting Walking Speed
Varying Speed of Sound and Wind
Measuring Speed Using Distance and Time
Velocity
Difference Between Scalar and Vector Quantities
Motion in a Circle - Constant Speed, Changing Velocity
The Distance-Time Relationship
Representing Motion with Distance-Time Graphs
Calculating Speed from the Gradient of a Distance-Time Graph
Change in Gradient on a Distance-Time Graph for Acceleration
Calculating Acceleration from a Distance-Time Graph Using Tangents
Drawing Distance-Time Graphs from Measurements
Determining Speed from a Distance-Time Graph
Acceleration
Estimating the Magnitude of Everyday Accelerations
Calculating Acceleration from a Velocity-Time Graph
Calculating Distance from the Area Under a Velocity-Time Graph
Interpreting Enclosed Areas in Velocity-Time Graphs to Determine Distance Travelled
Measuring Area Under Velocity-Time Graphs Using the Counting the Squares Method
Calculating Acceleration Without Time
Recording the Acceleration Due to Gravity on Earth
Acceleration of Objects Falling Through Fluids and Terminal Velocity
Drawing and Interpreting Velocity-Time Graphs for Objects with Terminal Velocity
Interpreting Changes in Motion in Terms of Forces
Newton’s First Law
Recall Newton's First Law of Motion
Examples of Newton's First Law of Motion
Identifying Changes in Velocity Due to Resultant Force in Real-World Scenarios
Explaining Object Motion Using Newton's First Law
Understanding Inertia and Its Role in Motion
Newton’s Second Law
Understanding Newton's Second Law of Motion
Calculating Acceleration and Resultant Force from Newton's Second Law Equation
Understanding Inertial Mass and its Relationship to Changing Velocity
Estimating Speed, Acceleration, and Forces in Everyday Road Transport
Appropriately Using the Estimate Symbol in Calculations
Required Practical 7: Investigating Force and Acceleration with a Glide Track and Pulley System
Newton’s Third Law
Understanding Newton's Third Law of Motion
Newton's Third Law - Examples of Equilibrium Situations
Stopping Distance
Understanding Stopping Distance
Estimating Emergency Stopping Distance at Different Speeds
Interpreting Graphs Relating Speed to Stopping Distance for Different Vehicles
Reaction Time
Understanding Variability in Reaction Time
Estimating Reaction Time Range
Factors Affecting Reaction Time and Stopping Distance
Measuring Human Reaction Times and Typical Results
Interpreting and Evaluating Reaction Time Measurements
Evaluating the Effect of Factors on Thinking Distance
Factors Affecting Braking Distance 1
Factors Increasing Braking Distance
Factors Affecting Emergency Stopping Distance and Safety Implications
Estimating Emergency Stopping Distance Variation with Speed
Factors Affecting Braking Distance 2
Work Done and Reduction of Kinetic Energy in Road Vehicles
Relationship Between Speed, Force, and Stopping Distance
Relationship Between Braking Force and Deceleration
Dangers Caused by Large Decelerations
Estimating Forces in Vehicle Deceleration on Public Roads
Momentum is a Property of Moving Objects
Momentum as a Property of Moving Objects
Calculating Momentum Using the Momentum Equation
Conservation of Momentum
The Law of Conservation of Momentum
Examples of Momentum in Collisions
Calculating Momentum in Collisions
Changes in Momentum
Impact of External Forces on Momentum
Calculating Change in Momentum from a Force Applied over Time
Force Equals the Rate of Change of Momentum
Impact Safety Features and the Rate of Change of Momentum
Interrelation of Changes in Mass, Velocity, and Acceleration
Waves
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
Types of Waves - Transverse and Longitudinal
Definition of Longitudinal Waves
Definition of Transverse Waves
Compression and Rarefaction in Longitudinal Waves
Examples of Longitudinal Waves
Difference Between Longitudinal and Transverse Waves
Evidence for Wave Travel in Ripples on Water Surface and Sound Waves in Air
Properties of Waves
Describing Wave Motion - Amplitude, Wavelength, Frequency, and Period
Equation for Period and Frequency
Calculating Frequency from Period and Period from Frequency
Wave Speed and Energy Transfer
Identifying Amplitude, Time Period, and Wavelength from Diagrams
Measuring the Speed of Sound Waves in Air
Measuring the Speed of Ripples on a Water Surface
Changing Velocity, Frequency, and Wavelength of Sound Waves in Different Mediums
Required Practical 8, Measuring Wave Speed using a Ripple Tank
Reflection of Waves
Reflection of Waves at Material Boundaries
Absorption and Transmission of Waves at Material Boundaries
Drawing Ray Diagrams for Wave Reflection
Effects of Reflection, Transmission, and Absorption of Waves at Material Interfaces
Required practical 9. Investigating Reflection and Refraction of Light
Sound Waves
Sound Waves Traveling Through Solids and Solid Vibrations
Conversion of Wave Disturbances Between Sound Waves and Vibrations in Solids
Limited Frequency Range in Sound Processes and its Relevance to Human Hearing
Frequency Range of Human Hearing
Waves for Detection and Exploration
Applications of Sound Waves in Echo Location, Manufacturing, and Ultrasound
Process of Echo Sound Location
Seismic Waves and Earth's Interior
Types of Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic Spectrum and Light Velocity
Order of Electromagnetic Spectrum
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 1
Interaction of Electromagnetic Waves with Matter
Refraction of Waves and Velocity Change
Ray Diagrams for Wave Reflection
Wave Front Diagrams and Refraction
Required Practical 10: Investigating Infrared Emissions with a Leslie Cube
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 2
Radio Waves and Oscillations in Electrical Circuits
Absorption of Radio Waves and Alternating Current
Generation and Absorption of Electromagnetic Waves
Hazards of Ionising Waves to Human Tissue
Millisieverts and Sieverts Conversion
Assessing Radiation Risk and Consequences
Health Risks of Ultraviolet, X-ray, and Gamma-ray Radiation
Uses and Applications of Electromagnetic Waves
Practical Uses of Electromagnetic Waves
Suitability of Electromagnetic Waves for Practical Applications
Lenses
Convex Lens and Principal Focus
Ray Diagrams for Convex and Concave Lenses
Real and Virtual Images in Convex Lenses
Virtual Images in Concave Lenses
Ray Diagrams for Convex and Concave Lenses
Measuring Height Using mm or cm
Drawing Simplified Lens Diagrams
Visible Light
Narrow Bands of Wavelength and Frequency in the Visible Light Spectrum
Why Opaque Objects Have Different Colours
Transparent and Translucent Objects
Relationship Between Colour and Differential Light Interaction
Why Opaque Objects Have Colour
Black Body Radiation Emission and Absorption of Infrared Radiation
Infrared Radiation Emission and Absorption
Perfect Black Body and Absorption
Perfect Black Bodies and Radiation
Emission of Radiation from All Bodies
Dependence of Emission Intensity and Wavelength Distribution on Temperature
Energy Balance and Constant Temperature
Magnetism
Poles of a Magnet
Interaction of Like Magnetic Poles
Interaction of Opposite Magnetic Poles
Magnetism as a Non-Contact Force
Difference between Permanent Magnets and Magnetic Materials
Attraction and Repulsion of Permanent Magnets
Permanent Magnets vs. Induced Magnets
Magnetic Fields
Attraction of Magnetic Materials to Permanent Magnets
Identifying the Strongest Point of a Magnetic Field
Plotting Magnetic Field Patterns with a Compass
Drawing Magnetic Field Patterns of a Bar Magnet
Magnetic Compass and Earth's Magnetic Core
Electromagnetism
Magnetic Field Produced by Current
Increasing Magnetic Field Strength with a Solenoid
Similarity of Magnetic Field Shape between Solenoid and Bar Magnet
Demonstrating the Magnetic Field Effect of a Current
Magnetic Field Patterns of a Straight Wire and a Solenoid
Increasing Magnetic Effect with a Solenoid Arrangement
Interpreting Diagrams of Electromagnetic Devices
Fleming's Left-Hand Rule
Applying Fleming's Left-Hand Rule
Electric Motors
Electric Motors and Rotational Effect of Current
Rotational Effect of Current in Electric Motors
Loudspeakers
How Moving-Coil Loudspeakers and Headphones Work
Induced Potential
Induction of Potential Difference between a Conductor and a Magnet
Lenz's Law and Induced Magnetic Fields
Factors Affecting Induced Potential Difference and Current
Factors Affecting Direction of Induced Potential Difference and Current
Uses of the Generator Effect
Types of Currents Produced by Generators
Generator Effect in Alternators and Dynamos
Graphs of Potential Difference Generated in a Coil
Microphones
Microphone and the Generator Effect
Transformers
Transformer Voltage Ratio Calculation
Identifying Step-Up and Step-Down Transformers
Transformer Efficiency and Power
Role of Alternating Current in Transformers
Transformer Ratio and Coil Turns
Calculating Current for Power Output
Applying the Equation for Potential Difference, Turns, Currents, and Power
Space
Orbital Motion, Natural and Artificial Satellites
Planets, Moons, and Artificial Satellites
Stable Orbits and Radius-Speed Relationship
Red-Shift
Red-Shift and the Expanding Universe
Expanding Universe and Galaxy Speed-Distance Relationship
Redshift as Evidence for the Big Bang Model